Wartime Control of Maritime Transportation

 

by Hiroshi IKAWA

Senior Member of Research Committee, DRC

 

Introduction

The 154^th session of the National Diet was adjourned in July 2002. On this session the emergency legislation bill was introduced but was carried over to the next session. However, this legislation did not provide the articles to sustain maritime transportations in time of emergency. For Japan, as a nation depending upon the international trade, it has been vitally important to maintain the safety of maritime transportation not only during the peacetime but also in time of emergency.

Over five decades, the Maritime Self-Defense Force has been trained their ability to conduct anti-submarine warfare and mine warfare to protect the security of maritime transportation as the primary mission. However, there has been no national　study  concerning how to maintain the safety of maritime transportation, and what role shall be carried out by the Maritime Self-Defense Force to perform the policy.

The study about the policy to secure safety of maritime transportation in time of emergency must be conducted during the peacetime. And this study should include not only the related government agencies but also civil organizations concerning the shipping and shipbuilding. I will investigate the history of the control of maritime transportation during the World War II in Japan, to serve as a reference for the policy study for the time of emergency.

 

1.     Commencement of the Control of Maritime Transportation

The shipping policy of Japan after the Imperial Restoration had been conducted by the concept of free economy. The control of the government was restricted only to the moderate encouragement and the maritime world voluntarily conducted the administration by them. However, by the influence of quasi-war structure after the outbreak of the Manchurian Incident on 1931, made the maritime world moved toward voluntary control. On June 1, 1937, the Maritime Autonomous League was established to coordinate the shipping expense and the allocation of vessels.

The First Konoe Cabinet, established on May 1937, announced the three economic principles, which consisted of expansion of production capability, improvement of international payments, and control of supply-demand relationship. At the outbreak of the Chinese Incident on July, Japan shifted to war-structure. On September, the Government of Japan enacted three laws to conduct the war, named the Contingent Capital Coordination Act, the Trade Goods Contingent Action Act and the Munitions Industry Mobilization Act. The Planning Agency was established on October 1937. The commodities mobilization program was commenced in 1938. Then the National Mobilization Act was enacted in April. These activities were to mobilize the whole human and material resources in the interest of war objectives.

The maritime world, which were voluntarily controlled, altered their　attitude to cooperate to the more strict government control. As the result of the studies about the procedure of control, the Maritime Association Act to intensify the control capability of the private sector was promulgated. In accordance to this act, the Japan Maritime Association was established on March 1940, to unite the existing private organizations.

Then the Cabinet council decided the Outline of the Maritime Transportation Control Policy on September 1, 1940, to intensify the national control. The contents were as follows:

�@The arrangement of the government organizations:

Replete the Ships Control Department, the Minister of Transportation

Establish the Ships Management Committee

Establish the Maritime Control Conference

�AThe enhancement of private organizations:

Establish the Central Maritime Transportation Control Union

�BThe transportation of goods

�CThe official shipping freight pricing and reserve fund

�DThe control of motor and sailing ships

To realize the enhancement of private organizations, the Central Maritime Transportation Control Union was established on October 1, 1940. As to promoting the arrangement of government organizations, the government started the arrangement committee for the Maritime Agency on February 1941. The actual inauguration of the Maritime Agency was December 16, 1941, after the outbreak of the War.

 

2. The Establishment of Shipping Protection Act

In the development of the situation toward the war, the necessity to make up the procedures to protect the shipping in the war-time was recognized, which had already been established in European nations as the result of the experiences of the World War I. The study to legislate the law for shipping protection was conducted by the Navy from October 1940. Then, as the result of the study, the Shipping Protection Act was established and promulgated on March 17, 1941.

Although the Navy intended to conduct the shipping control by the law, which was necessary to implement the escort by the Navy, the private sector of the maritime world disagreed and proposed to minimize the control by the Navy, to guarantee more extensive free hand about the management of the shipping. So the Act only contained the direction of the shipping routes and to outfit the minimum equipment necessary to carry out the formation.

 

3. Toward Unified Control of Maritime Transportation

The Cabinet Council on August 19, 1941 decided the Outline of Maritime Transportation Management in the Wartime. It was intended to make maritime transportation under the unified control of the government, including shipping control, seafarer control, shipbuilding control, special juridical person, laws and ordinances, and government organization.

(1)   Shipping Control

Ships would be called into requisition by the government to perform the maritime transportation necessary in wartime. The government developed the transportation program and shipping schedule. Then, a special juridical person operated the ships.

The Ministries or the agencies of the government reported to the Planning Agency and the Ministry of Transportation the quantity of important materials to transport, including the information of items, term, port of destination and shipper. The Ministry of Transportation developed the annual, quarter, and monthly transportation program with the Maritime Control Conference, and then, directed the program to the special juridical person to make the contract with shippers and implement the transportation.

The Ministry of Transportation subsidized for shipbuilding and ship owners and covered the losses caused by the shipping control.

(2) Seafarer Control

Seafarers would be called into requisition by the government based upon the National Mobilization Act and Seafarer Requisition Act, announced on October 1940. Although seafarer was called into requisition, a contract of employment with ship owner was still continued.

According to Seafarer Employment Control Direction and Seafarer Wages Control Direction, which were decided on October 20, 1940, the government decided wage and assignment of seafarer, then, the special juridical person implemented it.

The government compensated the death or injury of seafarer, incurred in the line of duty and consolidated the seaman training facilities to be able to train within short term. Special juridical person provided the seaman welfare facilities and managed them.

(3) Shipbuilding Control

The government managed the major shipyards and marine engine and their parts factories, established the shipbuilding program and ship maintenance program, and assigned the ship owner and shipbuilder to implement the program. The government also set up the enlarged program of the production factories and subsidized the manufacturers concerned if necessary. The government ensured materials and manpower and distributed them in accordance with previous arrangement. Price of the newly constructed ship and the maintenance of ships were decided by government with strict cost accounting.

As the start of the Shipbuilding Control Committee was expected on January 28,1942, special juridical person did not concern with shipbuilding control.

(4) Special Juridical Person

Special Juridical person conformed to the National Mobilization Act. It was composed of several associations of ship owners. The government designated the directors of Special Juridical Person and paid the subsidy. Special Juridical Person became Shipping Association established on April 1, 1942.

(5) Laws and Ordinances

Directive of “Maritime Control in the Wartime” was promulgated on March 25, 1942, conformed to National Mobilization Act.

(6) Government Organization

Maritime Transportation Agency was established on December 19, 1941, as a concrete manner of government organization declared in the Outline of the Maritime Transportation Control Policy.

 

4. Arrangement of Laws and Organizations for Unified Control

 

(1) Start of Maritime Transportation Agency

The government established the Arrangement Committee for the Maritime Transportation Agency on February 1941. However, the start of the Agency was December 29, 1941, just after the outbreak of the War, as the coordination among the related organizations took much time.

However, the Maritime Transportation Agency was based upon the Ships Management Department, Ministry of Transportation, it should be necessary to cooperate with the Navy. Then, it was established as an extra-ministerial bureau of both Ministry of Transportation and Ministry of Navy.

Maritime Transportation Agency was under the direction of the Minister of Transportation and took charge of maritime transportation, ships, shipbuilding and other maritime affairs. Main persons of the Agency were distributed among Ministries of Transportation and Navy: the Director General was a Vice Admiral from the Navy, and Vice Director General came from the Ministry of Transportation.

 

(2) Management of Shipbuilding Affairs

Shipbuilding Union, established after the World War I, was a social meeting of shipbuilders to coordinate the price and the arrangement of works. However, the influence of the quasi-war structure after the outbreak of the Manchurian Incident on 1931, requested the enlarged production capability under the controlled economy. Shipbuilding industry, as the major industry for the national defense, also changed the attitude from free economy to the government controlled to accomplish its responsibility. Then, Shipbuilding Union was dissolved into an Incorporated Association of Shipbuilding League, established on July 1937, to conduct shipbuilding control under the government leadership.

Major Industrial Corporation Control Ordinance was promulgated on August 30, 1941 based upon the National Mobilization Act. In accordance with this Ordinance, the establishment of Shipbuilding Control Association wad promulgated by the Ministry of Transportation on December 27, 1941. Then, the Incorporated Association of Shipbuilding Union was again dissolved into Shipbuilding Control Association established on January 28, 1942. The objective of Shipbuilding Control Association was to implement the integrated control management of shipbuilding industry to exhibit their total power at the maximum efficiency, and to cooperate with the planning and execution of the national shipbuilding policy.

At the conference between the Imperial Headquarter and the Government held on October 29, 1941, it had been decided that the part of shipbuilding management would be transferred to the Ministry of Navy in the wartime. However it was after the day of outbreak of War, that the Precedent in the Wartime about the Competency of the Shipbuilding Management was promulgated on February 4, 1942.

(3) Promulgation of Ordinance of Maritime Transportation Management in Wartime

As the Outline of Maritime Management in the Wartime was a decision of the Cabinet Council, it was necessary to promulgate the government ordinance. On March 25, 1942, the Ordinance of Maritime Transportation Management in the Wartime was promulgated, although it was also after the day of outbreak of War. As the Ordinance was intended to enhance national control of maritime transportation, it prescribed government use of whole ships, employment and personal management of seafarer, and unified control of government use ships by the Ship Operating Association. The ordinance has worked as the basis of the later control policy of the maritime transportation.

(4) Establishment of Shipping Association

Shipping Association was established on April 1, 1942, based upon the Ordinance of Maritime Transportation Management in Wartime, as the Special Juridical Person, prescribed in the Outline of the Maritime Transportation Control Policy. The objective of the association was to implement the management of maritime transportation control to exhibit their total power at the maximum efficiency in the wartime, and to cooperate with the execution of national maritime transportation policy.

The association was the substitute agency of the Maritime Transportation Agency, which was a government organization established as an extra-ministerial bureau of both the Ministry of Transportation and the Ministry of Navy. The policy for   maritime transportation in the wartime was planned by the Maritime Transportation Agency. Then, the Ship Operating Association implemented the policy.

The Association conducted the shipping operation, ship maintenance and seafarer management.

(5) Start of Industrial Facility Corporation

The initial duties of Industrial Facility Corporation, when it started on April 1942, did not put emphasis on shipbuilding affairs. However, the government revised the Industrial Facility Corporation Act on June 2, 1942 to add shipbuilding affairs in its duty, as shipbuilding affairs became seriously important according to the development of war situation. As the result of the revision, Industrial Facility Corporation began to conduct whole affairs about wartime standard vessels, such as the order to build, the sale of ships, etc. 

(6) Management of Seafarer

Outline of Seafarer Management Organization was decided on October 10, 1944. Which established the status of seafarer as the government official, as well as enhanced the mobility of assignment, training, and the management of seafarer,

Seafarer Mobilization Ordinance and Seafarer Treatment Ordinance were promulgated on January 25, 1945. Seafarer Mobilization Ordinance aimed to get sufficient seafarer by such means as enhancing the draft of seafarer, enlarging the range of draft, etc. Seafarer Treatment Ordinance classified and employed　seafarer as the government official in accordance with their qualification and career.

Ship Operating Association was able to conduct unified management of seafarer based upon these two ordinances.

 

5. Unified Management of Shipping and Port Operations

The Supreme War Council on March 15, 1945 decided to conduct the unified management of shipping and port operations in order to insure maritime transportation capability. Then, the Supreme War Council decided Outline of the Unified Management of Shipping and Port Operations on April 19. It was decided upon by the Cabinet on April 27 and carried into effect. However, it was treated as the incidental measure in the Wartime. The extraction of the Outline is as follows.

�@ Establish the War Potential Council within the Imperial Council to decide the following matters:

a.      Gross tonnage to transport

b.      Classification

c.       Order

d.      Others

The members of the War Potential Council are as follows:

Cabinet     Director General, General Planning Bureau

Army       Chief of Staff, Logistics Command

Navy       Director, War Potential Supply Department

            Chief of Staff, Naval Escort Command

Chief of Staff, Maritime Transportation Command

Ministry of Munitions    Director, General Mobilization Department

Ministry of Transportation and Communication

Director General, Maritime Transportation Bureau

And others as required.

�A Establish Maritime Transportation Command within the Imperial Council to implement the unified management of the maritime transportation. Shipping Command discharge the duty as the senior actual operating organization.

Maritime Transportation Command consisted of the personnel from the Army, Navy, Ministry of Munitions, Maritime transportation Bureau, and Shipping Association.

Shipping Command consisted of the personnel from the Army and Navy concerning of the maritime transportation.

�B Commander in Chief, Maritime Transportation Command will be able to direct Commander, Shipping Command, Commandant, Regional District, Commandant, Base Activity, Director General, Maritime Transportation Bureau, and Director General, Railroad Transportation Bureau to conduct unified management of shipping.

�C Commander in Chief, Maritime Transportation Command supervises the ship’s company and adjudicate praise and blame.

�DCommander, Shipping Command directs Regional Operating Facilities of maritime transportation, under the direction of Commander in Chief, Maritime Transportation Command.

�E Minister of Transportation and Communication directs the regional governor to conduct unified port operations to promote total efficiency of the cargo works.

Assign a permanent unified military commander for cargo works for each port. When the rapid works are urgent, Commandant, Military District (Army) or Commandant, Regional District (Navy) shall execute direct command to conduct the cargo works.

�F Ministry of Transportation and Communication have the primary responsibility to assign seafarer for each ship, and actual works are conducted by Maritime Transportation Bureau and Shipping Association, assisted by army and navy.

�G Strengthen the armament of the ships. Take the specific government measure to acquire fuel oil for vessels.

�H To conduct above actions, put to practical use whole the national departments and agencies and take the administrative measures as necessary.

 

6. Establishment of Maritime Transportation Command

It was decided to establish Maritime Transportation Command by the prescription of Outline of the Unified Management of Shipping and Port Operations. Then, Ordinance of Maritime Transportation Command was promulgated on May 1, 1945. Maritime Transportation Command developed Operating Procedure for the Unified Management of Shipping and Port Operations on June 15, 1945. Its duties of the Command described in the Procedure were as follows:

�@ Prepare materials for War Potential Council

�A Develop transportation plan

�B Arrange Shipping (including coordination)

�C Supervise shipping operations

�D Safety, rescue, defense and escort of the ships

�E Port operations

�F Cargo works

�G Outline schedule of shipping preparation and demand it from related organizations

�H Seafarer management

�I Communications

�J Research and statistics

As Maritime Transportation Command started, all the ships requisitioned by the Army and Navy except some vessels located in the South Pacific were discharged on June 30, 1945, then, employed by the government and operated under the unified control. However, there were no opportunity to exhibit the effect of this systems to control and manage the maritime transportation, as in the days the southern routes were cut off, home water navigation were wholly interrupted by mines air-laid by the B29 bombers, and the War was over within few months.

Captain Watanabe, the Imperial Navy, one of the staff officers for Maritime Transportation Command at that time, retrospect as follows.

“The concept of unified management of maritime transportation displayed in the Operating Procedure for the Unified Management of Shipping and Port Operations, developed by Maritime Transportation Command was the best issue at that time, as based upon the war experience over three years have been woven into it, the whole effort of the related personnel, although it had deficiencies caused by complex relationship between the Army, Navy, government and civil groups and the concept to use existing organization as far as possible. However, there remained no time to exhibit the result.

After all, it is necessary to develop deliberate war-time plan during peace time, based upon the concept, which are not captured by the existing organization or laws and ordinances, then, to provide the schedule to shift from peace time to emergency and finally in war time.”

 

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